Purpose: Research studies have shown that sexual abuse negatively affects the emotional functioning of abused victims. Yet, processes that link sexual abuse and maladaptive or adaptive emotional functioning remain unclear as do the reasons why some sexually abused girls achieve a more adaptive level of emotional functioning than others. Understanding the factors of resilience to a sexual abuse trauma would better inform clinical intervention and preventive efforts. The current study aims to examine (a) the direct effect of sexual abuse and family environment on the development of perceptions of control in the social domain or interpersonal relationship and (b) the indirect effect of these factors on the development of anxiety via perceptions of control in the social domain. Methods: The current analyses utilize the data from the longest-running longitudinal study in the U.S. on sexual abuse, which began in 1987, and to date, subjects have been evaluated 6 times (see, e.g. Trickett & Putnam, 1987). The sample includes 166 girls aged 6-16, roughly half of whom have experienced familial sexual abuse. Comparison girls were similar to the abuse sample in terms of ethnic group, age, socioeconomic status, and family constellation. Standardized, self-report measures were used to obtain information about victims' perceptions of control, family environment and anxiety. The measures include: two subscales (perceived unknown control and powerful others control in social domain) from the Multidimensional Measure of Children's Perception of Control (Connell, 1985); the perceived social competence subscale from the Self Perception Profile for Children (Harter, 1985); the independence subscale measuring the extent of family members' assertiveness and self-sufficient decision from the Family Environment Scale (Moos & Moos, 1981); and the trait anxiety subscale from the State-Trait Anxiety Scale (Spielberger, 1973). Path analysis was performed via Amos 5.0 program.

Results: The hypothesized model fitted the sample data very well ( χ²= 124.36, df=107, p=.12, CFI=.953, RMSEA=.031). The history of sexual abuse was significantly related to social unknown control at time 2 (β=.239, p<.05). Children's independence in the family at time 1 was significantly related to social competence at time 2 (β=.369, p<.05). Time 2 social competence (β=-.347, p<.01) and social unknown control (β=.341, p<.05) were significantly related to trait anxiety at time 2, and trait anxiety at time 2 was significantly related to trait anxiety at time 4 (β=.276, p<.05). In contrast to the classic external control theory, neither sexual abuse nor children's independence in the family predict social powerful others control at time 2. In summary, sexual abuse has short-term and long-term effects on trait-anxiety indirectly through perceived social unknown control, and children's independence in the family has short-term and long-term effects on trait anxiety idirectly through perceived social competence.

Implications: These findings have both theoretical and clinical implications. The results of this study theoretically challenge the classic internal versus external control theory. Clinically, these findings point to the importance of intervention on distorted perception of control in treating sexually abused victims and the importance of parenting education or family intervention promoting children's independence in the family.