Bridging Disciplinary Boundaries (January 11 - 14, 2007)

PURPOSE Results from two separately conducted meta-analyses on father involvement in parent training aimed at reducing child misbehavior are reported. The first examined whether fathers and mothers benefited equally from parent training, the second examined whether father involvement enhanced outcomes. Less than 20% of parent training programs include fathers (Budd & O'Brien, 1982; Coplin & Houts, 1991). Historically, father involvement in parent training was discouraged in some circles based on three primary studies which suggested mother involvement was good enough. For example, one study published in a reputable journal titled “Are fathers necessary in parent training groups?” (Firestone, Kelly, & Fike, 1982) argued that involving fathers was not necessary because mothers presumably did most of the parenting and could teach fathers what they learned. In reaction to such studies, several primary studies reported that father involvement enhanced outcomes. To date, no known meta-analysis has synthesized the results of such primary studies. METHOD In brief, traditional methods for searching, retrieving, and coding studies for meta-analytic reviews were followed. Electronic searches of major databases (e.g., Psycho Info) and hand searches of reference sections were conducted. Key words included the terms father, dad, parent, training, and education in various combinations. Studies were double-coded with high interrater reliability. Study inclusion criteria included use of a control group, focus on disruptive child behaviors, information about father involvement, and published in a refereed journal. Dependent variables included improvements in child behavior, parenting practices, and parental attitudes. Cohen's d was calculated and tests of heterogeneity and moderator analyses were conducted. Study rigor, participants' SES and marital status, and level of paternal involvement were coded and used to control for some variance. RESULTS Study 1. Of the 11 studies that reported “yoked data” from mothers and fathers, both tended to respond equally to parent training. Immediately following treatment, mothers and fathers reports of improvements in child behavior (d's = .74 & .67), parenting behaviors (d's = .67 and .53), and parental attitudes such as stress and confidence in parenting (d's = .47 and .65) were similar in magnitude. Study 2. From comparisons of the 13 studies which included only mothers in parent training with the 18 which involved mothers and fathers a clear pattern emerged: including fathers dramatically increases outcomes. Programs involving both parents compared to mothers only showed statistically significant benefits in improvements in child behavior (d's = .49 and .23) and parenting behaviors (d's = .59 and .21), but not for parental attitudes (d's = .51 and .55). It should be noted that these two groups of studies were matched on percentage of single parents in the study and participants SES. IMPLICATIONS Fathers should be involved in parent training as they are as likely to benefit as mothers and their inclusion dramatically enhances outcomes. Parent training providers should actively seek father or partner involvement rather than assuming that involving one parent is good enough. While this may require more efforts for providers, the additive value is dramatic.