Are there socioeconomic inequalities in mental health benefits of formal volunteering in later life?

Background and purpose. Following from a relatively large body of evidence regarding the health benefits of formal volunteering in later life, policymakers, practitioners, and researchers alike have called for enhanced opportunities for older adults' formal volunteer work. Nevertheless, disproportionately high rates of formal volunteering among the socioeconomically privileged raise questions as to whether formal volunteering is beneficial for the well-being of elders with low socioeconomic status. This study aimed to examine the extent to which psychological benefits associated with being a formal volunteer are patterned by older adults' income and education.

Method. This study used longitudinal data from participants in the 1995 and 2005 National Survey of Midlife in the U.S. who were between the ages of 65 and 74 when first interviewed (n = 194). Adults who reported at least one hour of monthly volunteering for an organization or cause were coded as formal volunteers at Time 1 (T1). Ordinal measures were created for household income and educational status at T1. Multi-item indices were used to assess several dimensions of respondents' psychological well-being at both T1 and Time 2 (T2), including negative affect, positive affect, sense of control, personal growth, and purpose in life. Multivariate models were estimated that regressed respondents' T2 scores with respect to a given dimension of psychological well-being on T1 scores with respect to that same dimension, T1 volunteer status, T1 income and education, and T1 sociodemographic factors and other control variables, including gender, age, race/ethnicity, work status, marital status, and functional health. Interaction terms between income and volunteer status, as well as education and volunteer status, were added to models to test for subgroup differences in associations between volunteering and psychological well-being.

Results. Although being a formal volunteer at T1 was not associated with changes in negative affect over the ten-year period, being a formal volunteer at T1 was associated with a greater sense of control and more positive affect between T1 and T2 regardless of respondents' income or education. Furthermore, being a volunteer at T1 was associated with greater gains in personal growth and purpose in life, but only among respondents with lower levels of income. No differences in the association between volunteer status and any of the dimensions of psychological well-being were observed across levels of education.

Conclusions and Implications. Given low rates of formal volunteering among elders with limited socioeconomic status, the relevance of formal volunteering for this subgroup of older adults has been questioned. Nevertheless, results of this study provide evidence that, at least with respect to more existential components of psychological well-being, it is lower-income elders who have the most to potentially gain from engaging in formal volunteer work. Findings suggest the critical importance of efforts to not only facilitate volunteer activities for older adults, but to facilitate activities that are deliberately accessible for older adults with limited incomes. In this way, enhancing structured civic engagement opportunities in later life can help to promote the optimal health of a more inclusive population of older adults.