Gender-Based Violence Beliefs and Stereotypes: Cross-Cultural Comparison and Association with Attribution of Blame

Purpose:Research indicates that cultural beliefs and stereotypes have negative effects on violence against children and women (Abrahams & Jewkes, 2005; World Health Organization [WHO], 2002). Beliefs and stereotypes do not only influence gender-based violence, they also encourage attribution of blame to victims of such violence (Bryant & Spencer, 2003; WHO, 2009). However, little is known about the effects of exposure to different social structures and norms on proviolence beliefs and attribution of blame for partner violence. Therefore, this study describes cross-cultural comparison of gender-based violence beliefs and stereotypes and determines the association of such beliefs and stereotypes with attribution of blame to female victim. Specifically, the study hypothesizes that gender-based violence beliefs and stereotypes will differ among racially diverse egalitarian society (United States), racially diverse patriarchal society (South Africa), and racially homogenous society (Nigeria). The study also hypothesizes that endorsement of gender-based violence beliefs and stereotypes will be associated with attribution of blame to female victim of partner violence.

Method: A convenience sample of 404 adults (females, 73.8%, n = 298) and (males, 26.2%, n = 106) from the United States (n = 127, 31.40%), South Africa (n = 122, 30.20%), and Nigeria (n = 155, 38.40%) participated in the study. The mean age was 35.43 years (SD = 10.47). Gender-based violence beliefs were operationalized with Beliefs about Relationship Violence against Women Scale (BRVWS) and stereotypes was operationalized with Gender Stereotypes and Beliefs (GSB) (Authors). BRVWS comprise three factors: physical violence, psychological manipulation and control, and sexual violence against women. GSB comprise two factors: beliefs about sexual submissiveness of women and emotional stereotypes about women. Attribution of blame to female victimwas operationalized by the Domestic Violence Blame Scale (Petretic-Jackson et al., 1994). Cronbach’s alpha for BRVWS/GSB ranged from .79 to .90 and .77 for attribution of blame to female victim. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine whether gender-based violence beliefs and stereotypes differ across countries. Follow-up univariate analyses used Bonferroni post hoc adjustments. Similarly, multiple regression analysis (simultaneous entry) was used to examine the association between gender-based violence beliefs and stereotypes and attribution of blame to female victim.

Results: Results suggested that gender-based violence beliefs and stereotypes differed across countries: respondents in Nigeria were more likely to endorse physical violence, psychological manipulation and control, sexual violence, sexual submissiveness of women, and emotional stereotypes about women than respondents in the United States and South Africa. Respondents in the United States were less likely to endorse emotional stereotypes about women than respondents in South Africa. Similarly, being younger, being black/non-Caucasian, and higher endorsement of sexual violence against women, emotional stereotypes about women, and sexual submissiveness of women were associated with attribution of blame to female victim of partner violence.

Conclusions and implications: Findings highlight differences in proviolence beliefs and stereotypes against women across societies. Cross-cultural comparison of gender-based violence and stereotypes may provide valuable knowledge about differences in vulnerabilities of women across societies and help identify effective international policies and practices for protecting women in domestic relationship.