Environmental Influences of Parental Monitoring: Gendered Effects in a Low Income Sample of Adolescents

Background: Adolescent behaviors are shaped in large part by the relationships youth have with their parents.  The parent-child relationship is instrumental in promoting prosocial behaviors.  Social control theory posits that social bonds place restraints on individuals’ behavior, thus reducing the likelihood of delinquent acts.  Social bonds such as the parent-child relationship and peer relationships relate to or, “control” adolescent behaviors.  In the absence of social controls, individuals feel less obliged to follow norms and laws governing social behaviors.   While parental monitoring is critical in preventing delinquent behaviors, little attention has been given to the factors compelling parents to engage in monitoring behaviors. The current study examines the association between non-familial, adolescent relationships (i.e., school connectedness, community connectedness, and peer relationships) and parental monitoring.

Methods: The current study used a sub-sample of 3,267 participants, aged 12-17, who had two or more data points derived from the Mobile Youth Survey between 2006 and 2011.  Most participants identified as Black American (92.2%), and about half (50.1%) were male. School connectedness was measured using eight items (0-8); higher scores indicate more school connectedness (α = 0.62). Neighborhood connectedness was measured using 11 items (0-11); higher numbers reflect higher connectedness (α = 0.66). Peer connectedness was measured using two scales.  Peer pressure to engage in risk behaviors was measured by six items (0-12); higher scores indicate more pressure from friends to engage in risk behaviors (α = 0.81). Peer support or support from friends was measured using a scale of 18 items (0-23); higher scores indicate more feelings of support (α = 0.76). Parental monitoring was measured using six items (0-12); higher numbers indicate greater monitoring (α = .77).         

Results: Random and fixed effects longitudinal growth models were conducted to examine the effects of the independent variables on parental monitoring.  Gender effects were also examined.  Gender effects were found for, school connectedness (males: γ = 0.19, t (1505) = 6.94, p < .001; females: γ = 0.11, t (99) = 2.59, p = .01), and peer support (males: γ = 0.14, t (382) = 12.09, p < .001; females: γ = -0.03, t (99) = -2.21, p = .03).  Significant effects were found for neighborhood connectedness (γ = 0.03, t (99) = 2.95, p = .004) and peer pressure (γ = -0.10, t (686) = -7.69, p < .001).

Conclusions: Parental monitoring responds in explicit ways to the distal bonds surrounding the parent-child relationship.  Moreover, these distal associations differ for males and females, providing support for the notion that the parent-child bond also differs based upon the child’s gender. While parental monitoring tends to decrease over time, the distal bonds that influence parental monitoring appear to have only a small effect on changing the trajectory of monitoring male children. Parental monitoring is also, at least partially a function of environmental context.  Intervention approaches that include parental monitoring or the parent-child relationship should also consider the environmental contexts that shape this bond.