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This study examines stigma experienced by children with disabilities at local public elementary schools in Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, and the U.S. We focus on children with mild cognitive and behavioral disabilities, such as learning disabilities, ADHD, and high-functioning autism who study in general education classrooms, where children co-create meanings of their “differences” and establish self- and social-identities in their social interactions with educators and typically-developing peers (Miller, Koven, Lin, 2012; Varenne & McDermott, 1998). Individuals’ awareness of their differences from others and public attitudes toward them can stigmatize those with socially undesired differences, including disabilities (Goffman, 1963). Yet cultural groups vary in the meanings of “differences” and the extent to which stigmatization affects children’s functioning. East Asian schools provide important contexts for U.S. practices because of educators’ exquisite sensitivity to stigma (Authors, 2014). Our research questions are: 1) How do children construct meanings of their “differences”? and 2) How do educators support children with disabilities?
Methods:
In-depth, semi-structured, audio-recorded individual interviews were conducted with 24 Japanese, 14 Taiwanese, 43 South Korean, and 18 U.S. elementary school educators in their native languages. Schools were selected based on our professional network. Participants were selected purposely for their experience in a variety of roles, including general and special education teachers, school social workers, and administrators. They discussed their experiences with children with disabilities and strategies for minimizing stigma. All interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed in their original languages. Using analytic induction techniques, researchers from each cultural community interpreted participants’ experiences through repeated readings of the transcribed interviews (Schwandt, 2007), contextualized by their cultural insider knowledge. Focusing on issues commonly identified across cultures, for example, children’s meaning making of their “differences,” our cross-cultural analysis examined variations across four research sites (Shweder & Sullivan, 1993). Peer debriefing, member checks and negative case analyses were used to expand and revise initial interpretations.
Results:
In four research sites, educators commonly described that children with disabilities become increasingly aware of their differences from peers through their own struggles and peers’ responses; and attribute meanings to those differences, typically by 2nd-3rd grades. Children may identify themselves as “failures,” and lose a sense of belonging within their peer groups. The way in which the lack of a sense of belonging typically impacted children’s school functioning, however, varied cross-culturally, from externalizing aggressive behaviors (U.S. and South Korean schools) to school refusal (Japanese schools). Educators discussed various strategies to support children’s sense of belonging. U.S. and South Korean educators generally described explicit and structured strategies, including special education services. Japanese and Taiwanese educators preferred to encourage children implicitly, for example, structuring the social ecology of the classroom to guide children to solve their own problems and become more confident in their classrooms.
Conclusions/Implications:
Although educators commonly discussed struggles of children with disabilities within general education classrooms, cross-cultural variations exist in children’s experiences and educators’ responses. Such cultural variations provide educators and school social workers with new perspectives to develop programs for children from culturally diverse communities.