The Influence of Paternal Depression in Parenting of Young Children in Low-Income Families

Background: Young children living in families with depressed and stressed parent are at risk for negative development (Fiese et al, 2011). Research shows that maternal depression impairs children’s development through the mediating influences of parenting stress and compromised parent-child interactions, and particularly in low-income families (Institute of Medicine, 2009).  However, not much is known about the empirical path through which a father’s depression may compromise parenting. Some research demonstrates that fathers’ involvement in parenting is important to family wellbeing (Cabrera, Fagan, & Farrie, 2008), maternal experience with depression (Paulson & Bazemore, 2010), parent-child interaction (Kane & Garber, 2004), and early child development (Davis, Davis, Freed, & Clark, 2011). Understanding the interrelated nature of parenting and its consequences to child development is supported by Granic and Patterson’s (2006) dynamic skills theory in that if early parent-child interactions settle into negative patterns that impede children’s development of competencies, then, young children become at risk for acquiring a negative developmental trajectory. More recent longitudinal research published by this author has shown that parent-child engagement in child-routines during early years can be protective against maternal depression and parenting stress in connection to children’s development. However, that study did not take into account a father’s presence, or consequence of depression. Therefore, the primary purpose of this study was to further investigate the empirical role that a father’s depression may exert in the context of mothers’ depression, parenting-stress, and parent-child engagement in routine activities on child development.

Methods: Secondary data analysis examined 3001 children in low-income families enrolled during birth-5years phase into the federal Early Head Start Research and Evaluation (EHSRE). The sample included White (n=1091), Black (n=1014), and Hispanic (n=696) children studied across three time periods (birth/enrollment – 36months – 60 months). Data collection uses structured interviews with EHSRE-trained interviewers, and standardized protocols. Parental variables on depression (CES-D), parenting-stress (Abidin’s Parenting Stress Index), and parent-child engagement (EHSRE-questions on child-routines), and father’s helpfulness with child, were parent-reported. Trained examiners tested children’s measures for child development. Structural equation modeling (SEM), using AMOS/SPSS statistical software with full maximum likelihood (ML) tested the hypothesized path-models, and path coefficients.  Mediation models followed standard recommendations (Frazier, Tix, & Barron, 2004). University-IRB approved the study.

Results: The final mediated path model showed good fit (Chi-square (33) = 65.61, p <.001; NFI = .967, CFI = .981, RMSEA = .020, Hoelter’s N=2245 at p < .01). The results supported the previous hypotheses, and build on the author’s previous study that parental depression directly compromises parenting stress, which in turn directly influence parent-child engagement, and child regulatory and learning process.  Interestingly, a father’s depression also directly influenced maternal depression, but not the other way around. Other differences exist in the investigated paths. Limitations of measurement are considered.

Implications: Young children experience parental depression indirectly through parenting-stress that exerts negative consequence to parenting practice onto child development. Screening for both maternal and parental depression in early childhood should become part of routine assessment of quality parenting practices in early childhood programs.