Police Victimization in the U.S.: Measurement, Estimates of Prevalence, and Mental Health Significance

Background: The widespread adaptation of smartphone technology and consequent availability of real-time footage of police-public interactions has greatly increased public awareness of police violence. This awareness has contributed to interest in policy change around police accountability. However, such efforts have been impeded by (1) significantly limited data regarding police violence in the United States and (2) a lack of validated measures of police violence. Further, there has been little data on, or attention to, health and mental health consequences of violent interactions other than death or severe physical injury. This oral presentation will provide an overview of efforts to address these gaps in the Survey of Police-Public Encounters, a general population survey conducted in Baltimore, New York City, Philadelphia, and Washington D.C.

Methods: Adult residents (N=1615) of four Eastern U.S. cities were sampled through Qualtrics Panels, an internet-based survey administration service. Quota sampling was used to create a sample that was within +/-10% of census distributions for each city in terms of race, gender, and age. Respondents were assessed with two novel measures of police violence: the Police Practices Inventory, which assesses past history of exposure, and the Expectations of Police Practices Scale, which assesses anticipated exposures over the subsequent year. Mental health constructs included psychological distress (K-6 scale), depression (PHQ-9), psychosis (WHO-CIDI screen), and suicidal ideation and attempts (WHO-CIDI screen). Both novel measures of police violence were assessed for psychometric properties. The Police Practices Inventory was used to calculate estimated prevalence of police violence among the entire sample and within specific demographic sub-groups. Finally, regression analyses were used to examine associations between police violence exposures and mental health outcomes.

Results: Prevalence of specific sub-types of police victimization ranged from 2.8% for sexual violence up to 18.6% for psychological violence (e.g., threatening, discriminatory slurs). All types of victimization were more common among Black and Latino respondents, male and transgender respondents, and younger adults. Test-retest reliability data and internal consistency data showed the novel measures of police violence to be reliable and valid. All forms of police violence were associated with psychological distress, depression, and psychosis-like symptoms, whereas only assaultive forms of victimization (i.e., physical violence and sexual violence) were associated with suicide attempts. Experiences of positive policing were more common among white respondents and generally did not bestow a protective effect for mental health.

Discussion: Recent media and community reports of widespread and inequitably distributed police violence appear to be supported by study data. While these cross-sectional data should be replicated using a prospective design in order to better understand causality, recommendations to improve police-community interactions are likely to be beneficial regardless of the direction of these relationships. Potential pathways to addressing this issue include improved training and screening of police officers, greater police accountability, community policing approaches that enhance relationships between the police and members of the community, and development of community-based restorative justice alternatives to policing.