A Life Course Perspective of Victimization, Child Welfare Involvement, and Mental Health for Women on Probation and Parole

Background: This study investigated the relationships between women’s childhood and adulthood experiences of victimization, child welfare involvement, and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Over half of women involved in the criminal justice system have mental health concerns. They commonly report multiple forms of adversity over their lifetimes. In a paradox of marginalization, they often experience a lack of needed social and medical services, yet also experience a high level of surveillance and interaction with the criminal-legal and child welfare systems. This study used the Stress Process Model to examine connections between childhood and adulthood stressors, cumulative stress, and depression and anxiety for mothers on probation/parole. 

Methods: Secondary data analysis was conducted with data collected through a longitudinal study of women on probation and parole. A random sample of mothers (n=348) completed the baseline interview; 70.5% had minor-age children, and 42.7% were Black/African American, 50.1% were White/Non-Hispanic Caucasian, and 7.2% were multiracial/other race.

Women completed measures of childhood neglect and physical, psychological, and sexual abuse, intimate partner violence, child welfare involvement as a child and as a mother, and cumulative stress. Measures for the dependent variables focused on symptoms of anxiety and depression. Analyses were conducted in Mplus using structural equation modeling. Covariates (race/ethnicity, education and income) were included in the models.

Results: Women experienced childhood abuse in physical (64%), psychological (75%) and sexual (39%) forms. A majority of women reported at least one form of intimate partner victimization. Additionally, 24% of women were involved with child welfare as children and 47% were involved as mothers.

The overall model fit the data adequately: CFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.02 (90% Confidence Interval: 0.01, 0.03), WRMR = 0.86. Childhood abuse was positively associated with intimate partner violence (β = .41, p < .001), cumulative stress (β = .31, p < .001), and anxiety (β = .26, p < .001) and depression (β = .28, p < .001) symptoms. Childhood welfare involvement was positively associated with adulthood child welfare involvement (β = .25, p < .001), and negatively associated with cumulative stress (β = -.15, p = .01) and depression symptoms (β = -.12, p = .01). Intimate partner violence was positively associated with cumulative stress (β = .14, p = .03) and anxiety symptoms (β = .18, p < .001). Adulthood child welfare involvement was positively associated with cumulative stress (β = .18, p < .001). Cumulative stress was associated with anxiety (β = .27, p < .001) and depression (β = .19, p < .001) symptoms.

Implications: A life course perspective displayed multiple direct and indirect relationships with women’s mental health symptoms with cumulative stress and intimate partner violence as key mediating variables. These findings highlight the complexity of factors influencing the mental health of mothers involved in the criminal justice system, with implications for social work practice, policy and research. Community sanctions are critical intervention points for addressing the women’s complex needs and require a robust, coordinated reentry system linking multiple systems in a protective manner.