Using a Social-Ecological Framework to Examine the Cognitive Development of Elementary School Children in the U.S

Background: Numerous studies have explored cognitive development in young and early childhood, and much less has been done to understand cognitive outcomes in middle childhood. As such, our study looked at how various socio-ecological factors affect cognitive development of elementary school-aged children especially focusing on verbal, reading, and math skills, and auditory memory in the United States. By observing the association between social-ecological factors and children’s these specific areas we aimed to determine which factors are most salient to elementary school-aged children’s cognitive outcomes.

Methods: We used the 6th wave (9 year old children) of the U.S. Fragile Family and Child Wellbeing Study. With a sample size of 1722, we used multiple regression analyses of the relationship between the individual (childs’ sex, race/ethnicity), family (mother’s age and marital status, mother’s depression and educational level, household income), and school/community-level factors (school’s environment, school’s type) and children’s verbal, reading, and math skills, and memory span.

Results: We found that children in special education schools showed lower scores in verbal, reading, and math skills, and memory span than children in regular public schools (B = -46.56, p < 0.001, B = -50.58, p < 0.001, B = -46.16, p < 0.001, B = -4.92, p < 0.001, respectively); children in schools with no environmental problems reported higher scores in verbal, math, and reading skills than those in schools with environmental problems (B = 4.65, p < 0.001, B = 4.88, p < 0.01, B = 4.48, p < 0.01, respectively); children whose mothers had higher educational levels reported higher scores of verbal and reading skills, and memory span (B = 9.43, p < 0.001, B = 5.91, p < 0.05, B = 1.20, p < 0.05, respectively); and children’s race/ethniciy was associated with verbal skills. For instance, African- and Mexican-American children scored lower in verbal skills than White children (p < 0.001, B = 66.11; p < 0.05, B = -4.97, respectively).

Conclusion/Implication: To assist elementary schoolers’ cognitive development, first, special education should be carefully reviewed to address the specific learning needs of students and their developmental areas. The effective implementation of curriculum for children with special needs should be carried out within the broader framework of promoting universal education. While the educational purposes of special education may differ from those of mainstream public schools, the overarching goal remains consistent. Therefore, educators need to facilitate the holistic development and academic progress of all students, regardless of their individual needs and abilities. Second, schools in poverty-impacted neighborhoods are likely to have lower levels of quality education and a lack of resources,which can lead to a negative influence on children’s cognitive development. Schools should improve the quality of curriculum to bolster children’s cognitive development and create a positive and supportive learning environment. Collaborating with stakeholders (school board members), school staff, and parents is essential for fostering such an environment. Lastly, providing parents’ education in the child school and in the community can effectively assist in improving parenting skills and support children's academic learning.