Material Hardship and Child Well-Being in Two-Parent Families: Perspectives from Family Stress, Investment, and Developmental Cascade Theories

Objective: This study examines the impact of material hardship on the cognitive, academic, and behavioral outcomes of children at the age of 9 in two-parent families. It integrates the theoretical lenses of Family Stress Theory (FST), Family Investment Theory (FIT), and Developmental Cascade Theory (DCT) to examine both the direct and indirect effects of material hardship.

Background: Extensive research over the last two decades has highlighted the negative consequences of economic hardship on child well-being, primarily focusing on family income as a determinant. However, the nuanced roles of parental behavior, specifically within the context of two-parent families, and the subsequent long-term developmental trajectories of children, remain underexplored. This study seeks to fill these gaps by considering the broader array of resources families draw upon and the critical early years of child development.

Method: Utilizing data from the first five waves of the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), this study focuses on 1,271 two-parent families, tracking the developmental trajectories of children from birth to age 9. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) is employed to explore the relationship between material hardship, learning environment quality, parental stress and behavior, and children’s academic and behavioral outcomes.

Results: Our findings suggest that while material hardship significantly affects the early learning environment, this does not directly predict academic or behavioral outcomes at age 9, challenging the predictions of standard FIT. However, material hardship's indirect effects, through early learning environments and vocabulary skills, support the integrated approach of FIT and DCT. Conversely, FST's hypothesis finds support in the significant indirect effects of material hardship on behavioral problems through parental stress and harsh discipline, indicating the complex interplay of economic hardship with child development over time.

Conclusion: The study underscores the critical role of early material hardship in shaping the developmental pathways of children within two-parent families. These findings suggest a holistic approach that incorporates FST, FIT, and DCT. Such an approach would expand support for two-parent families facing material hardship, emphasizing the importance of enhancing the learning environment and reducing parental stress to foster children’s well-being.