Fathers' Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and Behavior Problems in Their Children

Background and Purpose: Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are associated with poor physical and mental health outcomes in adulthood. Recently, research has indicated the cascading consequences of ACEs are experienced across generations. For example, parental ACEs are associated with internalizing and externalizing behaviors in their children. To date, research on the intergenerational impact of ACEs on children’s outcomes has focused almost exclusively on mothers, leaving aside the experiences of fathers. Given fathers’ critical role in child development, it is imperative that we better understand the repercussions fathers’ ACEs have for their children. In response to this gap in the literature, the goal of this study was to examine the association between fathers’ ACEs and their children’s behavior problems, using both home- and community-based definitions of ACEs.

Methods: Participants included 872 fathers from Fathers and Families, a cohort of fathers (N = 1,272) with children ages 1-7 established in 2021, who participated in the baseline and year one surveys. Fathers reported on their own home-based ACEs (i.e., abuse, household dysfunction) using an adapted version of the Original ACE Questionnaire (range 0-6), and community-based ACEs (i.e., discrimination, community violence), using an adapted version of the Philadelphia ACE Survey (range 0-4). ACEs were count variables, used categorically (home-based: 0 vs. 1 vs. 2 vs. 3 vs. 4+; community-based: 0 vs. 1 vs. 2 vs. 3+) to assess nonlinear links with children’s behavior problems. Children’s behavioral problems, reported by fathers, were assessed using the Preschool Pediatric Symptom Checklist and used as a binary variable (presence of behavior problems versus no behavior problems). A generalized linear model using the log link function was fit to examine the association between fathers’ ACEs and children’s behavior problems, adjusting for pre-exposure covariates (i.e., fathers’ race/ethnicity). Inverse probability weighting was used to reduce selection bias due to attrition across survey years. The model was first estimated with home-based ACEs and re-estimated with community-based ACEs.

Results: Twenty-six percent of children exhibited behavior problems. For home-based ACEs, having four or more ACEs, compared to having no ACEs, was associated with an estimated 71% increase in the risk of behavior problems in children (relative risk [RR]: 1.71, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.09-2.49). For community-based ACEs, the relative risk of behavior problems for children whose fathers reported one (RR: 1.28, CI: 1.03-1.61) or two ACEs (RR: 1.38, CI:1.03-1.61) was 28% and 38% higher, respectively, compared to children whose fathers reported no ACEs.

Conclusions and Implications: Overall, findings indicate fathers’ home- and community-based ACEs have negative implications for the well-being of their children. These findings highlight a need for transdisciplinary research to determine the psychosocial and biological mechanisms by which fathers’ ACEs are associated with behavior problems in their children. Understanding the pathways of transmission and partnering with father-focused community organizations can inform more effective family-based interventions to prevent the long-term consequences of ACEs from crossing generations.