The Effects of Parent-Child Relationships on Depression and School Adaptation Mediated By Resilience in Adolescents with Adverse Childhood Experiences: Differences By Gender

The adverse effects of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) on the psychological wellbeing and development of adolescents have been well documented. To prevent and mitigate such detrimental effects, it is important to identify protective and promotive factors based on resilience theory. Although previous research has been conducted on parent-child relationships, resilience, depression, and school adjustment, few studies have investigated gender differences in these relationships.

This study aimed to examine how parent-child relationships among adolescents with ACEs are associated with depression and school adaptation through the mediating role of resilience. Additionally, the study sought to explore potential gender differences in these pathways, thereby proposing differentiated interventions based on gender distinctions.

This study utilized the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) dataset. Our sample was restricted to adolescents with ACEs (n=3,414). ACEs were assessed using 10 indicators across five waves (ages 0, 1, 3, 5, 9): 1) Physical abuse; 2) Psychological abuse; 3) Physical neglect; 4) Emotional neglect; 5) Sexual abuse; 6) Parental divorce/separation; 7) Parental mental health issues; 8) Parental substance abuse; 9) Parental incarceration; 10) Domestic violence. The independent variables included parent-child relationship, with depression and school adaptation as dependent variables, and resilience as a mediating variable. Gender was considered a moderating variable, while primary caregiver's age, education, and household income were controlled variables. These variables were assessed at age 15.

For model validation, structural equation modeling (SEM) and multigroup analysis were employed. Mediation analysis was conducted using bootstrapping methods. To evaluate the model fit, we utilized chi-square, CFI, RMSEA, and SRMR. SPSS 23.0, MPLUS 8.4 was used for the analysis.

The measurement model fit was deemed adequate with χ²=726.605(df=37, p<.001), CFI=.934, RMSEA=.074, SRMR=.045. Similarly, the structural model analysis indicated a good fit with χ²= 879.896(df=61, p<.001), CFI=.923, RMSEA=.063, SRMR=.042. Parent-child relationships significantly influenced resilience (b=.051, p<.01) and school adaptation (b=.107, p<.001), but had no significant effect on depression. Resilience was found to significantly influence depression (b=-4.232, p<.001) and school adaptation (b=1.483, p<.001). Mediation analysis revealed that resilience fully mediated the relationship between parent-child relationships and depression, and partially mediated the relationship between parent-child relationships and school adaptation. Multigroup analysis confirmed configural, measurement, and structural invariance across gender groups. Gender differences were observed in the impact of parent-child relationships on depression and the effect of resilience on depression. Additionally, resilience fully mediated the relationship between parent-child relationships and depression in boys, while showing partial mediation in girls.

Our study findings confirm that parent-child relationships influence depression and school adaptation through resilience. The results highlight the importance of parent-child relationships and resilience in protecting adolescent mental health and promoting school adaptation. Specifically, reducing depression requires simultaneous efforts to improve parent-child relationships and increase resilience. Furthermore, our findings indicate that parent-child relationships have a stronger impact on depression among girls compared to boys, emphasizing the need for gender-specific interventions.

This study underscores the necessity of developing intervention programs aimed at improving parent-child relationships and enhancing resilience to promote mental health and school adaptation among adolescents with ACEs.