Examining Maternal Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and Parenting: A Longitudinal Study

Background and Purpose: Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are prevalent, with one in six U.S. adults having experienced four or more ACEs. ACEs not only lead to a wide range of adverse outcomes for those directly affected but also have the potential to affect the well-being of the next generation through parenting practices. Previous studies suggest that maternal ACES are associated with harmful parenting practices, however, significant gaps remain including a lack of: 1) expanded ACEs measures; 2) longitudinal studies; 3) moderation effects; and 4) non-White study populations. The objectives of this study are to: 1) examine the relationship between maternal household and community-based ACEs and parenting practices longitudinally among low-income Black mothers; and 2) assess depression as a moderator of these relationships.

Methods: This is a longitudinal, observational study that utilized baseline and four-year follow-up survey data of 443 enrolled mothers recruited from WIC clinics. Maternal ACEs were measured at baseline in three ways: a 7-item household ACES score based on the original ACES measure (e.g., child abuse, household dysfunction); a 5-item community-based ACES score from the Philadelphia ACE survey (e.g., racism, bullying); and childhood experience of spanking (CES) assessed as a single, ordinal item. Four parenting outcomes were assessed: 1) positive parenting practices (18 items) and 2) coercive parenting (5 items) were assessed using the Parenting and Family Adjustment Scales; 3) Attitudes toward Spanking (ATS) (5-items); 4) frequency of corporal punishment (CP) use. Key sociodemographic factors (e.g., parent and child age; child gender) and potential confounding variables (e.g., parenting stress, group assignment) were included. Linear mixed effect models and Generalized estimating equations were utilized to examine ACEs as predictors of parenting.

Results: Participants in our study reported a higher prevalence of most ACEs than those in the original ACES study, including psychological abuse (44.6% vs. 11.1%), physical abuse (43.5% vs. 10.8%), parental intimate partner violence (30.7% vs. 12.5%), and criminal involvement (19.0% vs. 3.4%), respectively. Higher levels of household ACEs were associated with higher levels of coercive parenting (β= .18, p< .05) and support of spanking (β= .32, p< .05), and lower levels of positive parenting practices (β= -.24, p< .05). Community-based ACEs and CES showed similar patterns in relation to parenting, but not all reached significance. CES was associated with higher use of CP as a parent (β= .11, p< .05). Depression plays a significant moderating role, suggesting that among mothers with ACEs, those with higher levels of depression are more likely to use coercive parenting, and less likely to use positive parenting.

Conclusions and Implications: Our study found enduring effects of maternal ACEs on parenting practices. Early screening for high levels of maternal ACEs, along with maternal depression, could help to identify those that could most benefit from trauma-informed parenting support and mental health intervention. Additionally, this approach could disrupt the intergenerational transmission of violence against children by modifying parenting practices, thereby enhancing the well-being of both parents and children.