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Intergenerational material hardship is prevalent in the United States. Consistent with the tenets of life course theory (LCT), research indicates that primary caregiver hardship significantly shapes the well-being of their children (Marçal, 2022; Conrad & Ronnenberg, 2022; Thomas, 2022). Structural factors such as child protective services (CPS) involvement exacerbate parental stress and financial instability (Montoro & Ceballo, 2021; Mendoza et al., 2017). Reliance on public assistance may offer short-term relief, but unsustainable program benefits can prolong hardship (Saloner, 2013; Pilkauskas et al., 2017). Caregivers often seek further support from kin, which potentially buffers or intensifies their own hardship (Pilkauskas et al., 2017; Fuller et al., 2020). Together, these challenges reinforce enduring cycles of material hardship. Many low-income youth face persistent disadvantage into adulthood. We hypothesize that higher levels of primary caregivers’ material hardship at child adolescence age 15 are associated with increased material hardship of young adults’ aged 22.
Methods
Using longitudinal data from Waves 6 and 7 of the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS), we analyzed a sample of 2,836 youth-caregiver pairs. Material hardship was assessed using validated indicators derived from the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), including measures of food insecurity, housing instability, medical and utility hardship. Composite hardship indices were created for primary caregivers (child aged 15) and young adults (age 22). Multiple linear regression analysis was conducted on complete cases, consistent with prior research on material hardship, and we also performed multiple imputations to account for missing data, on the assumption that variables were missing at random. Covariates included caregiver age, household income and size, education, unemployment status, and receipt of SNAP and TANF.
Results
Primary caregiver hardship during youth adolescence (child aged 15) was significantly associated with increased young adult hardship (β = .133, p < .001), supporting the cumulative disadvantage hypothesis within life course theory. CPS involvement also emerged as a significant predictor (β = .299, p = .036), indicating that system contact may exacerbate long-term economic instability. Older caregiver age was associated with lower young adult hardship (β = –.018, p = .006), while SNAP receipt was positively associated with material hardship (β = .345, p < .001) likely because of the existence of greater underlying need among families already experiencing economic vulnerabilities.
Implications and Conclusions
These findings underscore the enduring impact of early-life economic adversity and institutional surveillance on young adult outcomes. Interventions aimed at reducing material hardship should target not only immediate need but also structural and developmental trajectories. Expanding holistic support systems for families experiencing material hardship, particularly during adolescence, may disrupt pathways of intergenerational disadvantage. Caregiver hardship in youth adolescence has lasting consequences for young adults well-being. Addressing material hardship and its systemic correlates, requires long-term, life course-informed approaches that intervene early and consider both family and institutional contexts. These findings emphasize the need for integrated policies that address material need and promote developmental resilience across generations.