A Scoping Review of Risk and Protective Factors for Intergenerational Trauma Transmission in Infancy and Early Childhood

Background & Purpose: Prevention has been recognized as the most effective intervention in ending cycles of intergenerational trauma or mitigating the effects. Infancy and early childhood offer a critical time period for prevention of intergenerational trauma transmission, given the relational nature of neurobiological development and the unique importance of parent-child relationships in early life. However, the existing literature reflects a dearth of knowledge regarding specific risk and protective factors in early life that may contribute to, mitigate, or prevent cycles of intergenerational trauma transmission. This scoping literature review synthesizes quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, and literature review research to identify what is known in the literature about individual and relational risk and protective factors that may contribute to or buffer against intergenerational trauma transmission during the critical developmental period between infancy and age 5. This study examines the presence of intergenerational trauma and related risk and protective factors for parents and children, as well as mechanisms that may transmit trauma between parents and their children.

Methods: Eight electronic databases were searched using an open timeframe in March 2025 for relevant articles, using the following key terms: (“intergenerational trauma” OR “generational trauma” OR “transgenerational trauma” OR “relational trauma”) AND (infan* OR toddler* OR “early childhood” OR preschool). Eligible studies had a full text available and were published in the English language. Peer reviewed quantitative and qualitative empirical studies, theoretical studies, and conceptual papers are included in this review.

Results: After analysis, individual risk and protective factors were grouped into three primary categories: biologic and epigenetic factors; maternal trauma, mental health and child development outcomes, and the impact of war and terror. The most commonly identified individual risk factors across categories included maternal maltreatment and PTSD, and biological/epigenetic risks. Relational risk and protective factors were organized within two primary groupings: relationships between trauma and parenting and attachment relationships. Mentalization emerged as a clear subconstruct within attachment. The most frequently identified relational risk factors included impaired parenting and mother-infant attachment relationships. Ten studies identified specific individual or relational protective factors which primarily centered around positive early parenting, secure parent-infant attachment, social support and maternal post-traumatic growth and healing.

Conclusions & Implications: Key findings highlight that the majority of factors in intergenerational trauma transmission exist on a continuum, therefore having the capacity to enhance or diminish risks. Further, this review underscores a significant emphasis on maternal factors, often framed by pathology; a trend that has been recognized in previous research. Findings emphasize the need to develop a more robust understanding of individual and relational protective factors, and the contributions of fathers and other primary caretakers to patterns of intergenerational trauma. Study findings also illuminate the need for future research that examines factors such as maternal wellbeing in buffering against intergenerational trauma transmission to identify additional protective mechanisms specific to mothers, moving away from a lens of pathology towards one of resilience.