Kinlessness and Depressive Symptoms in Older Adults: Gender Differences and the Moderating Role of Social Participation

Background and Purpose: Approximately 5.5% of U.S. older adults lack both a partner and children, with kinlessness has become increasingly common in the aging population. Limited familial ties are associated with more severe depressive symptoms, while social participation can help older adults to build social connections and strengthen resilience to stress. Given the well-established gender differences in social integration and mental health, the relationship between limited familial ties, depressive symptoms, and social participation may differ between older men and women; however, this remains understudied. Therefore, this study aims to explore relationships between family types and depressive symptoms, how these relationships vary by gender, and whether they are moderated by social participation.

Methods: This cross-sectional study used data from 7,513 participants aged 65 and older from the 2016–2018 Health and Retirement Study (HRS) who completed the Psychosocial and Lifestyle Questionnaire. Participants were categorized into four family types: (1) having a partner and children, (2) having children but no partner, (3) having a partner but no children, (4) having no partner and no children. Multivariate regressions were conducted to examine differences in depressive symptoms across kinlessness types, with additional stratified analyses by gender. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the C-ESD score. Social participation was measured through questions related to five activities: attending social clubs, volunteering, participating in charity work, engaging in educational activities, and involvement in non-religious organizations. We also assessed whether social participation moderates the relationship between family types and depressive symptoms. Moderating effects of social participation were further examined separately for men and women in the stratified analyses.

Results: Older adults with children but no partner (b = 0.37, p < 0.001) and those without both kin (b = 0.29, p < 0.05) reported significantly higher levels of depressive symptoms compared to those with both a partner and children. Gender-stratified analyses revealed that among men, those with children but no partner reported higher depressive symptoms than those with both a partner and children (b = 0.50, p < 0.001). Among women, both those with children but no partner (b = 0.32, p < 0.001) and those without both kin (b = 0.33, p < 0.05) exhibited higher depressive symptoms. A significant buffering effect of social participation was found for older adults with children but no partner (b = -0.20, p < 0.05), indicating that higher levels of social participation were associated with fewer depressive symptoms in this group. Similar moderating effects were found among older men with children but no partner (b = -0.04, p < 0.05).

Conclusion: This study highlights the vulnerability to depressive symptoms among older adults with fewer familial ties. Gender differences were also observed, with kinlessness being more strongly associated with depressive symptoms among women than men. Additionally, the findings suggest that social participation can buffer against depressive symptoms for older adults with children but no partner—especially among men. These results highlight the need for targeted interventions that promote social engagement and expanded mental health support services for older adults with fewer familial ties.