Parenting Under Pressure: How Stress Shapes Positive and Punitive Parenting Behaviors

Background and Purpose: Parental stress has been extensively linked to increased use of punitive or aggressive disciplinary practices. However, its impact on positive parenting behaviors is less clear, with some studies suggesting that high stress may impair responsiveness and involvement, while others indicate that parents may maintain positive engagement despite stress. Families of color and those in poverty experience profound stressors differing from middle class white families who are often represented in parenting research. Furthermore, parenting practices in minority and poorer families are largely explored through the lens of harsh parenting, neglecting the nuanced co-occurrence of positive and punitive behaviors. This study used ecological momentary assessment (EMA) data to explore how momentary stress shapes the interplay between positive and punitive parenting.

Methods: Data were drawn from an EMA study of 543 racially and socioeconomically diverse parents (66.6% non-Hispanic White, 20.4% non-Hispanic Black, 4.8% Hispanic, 8.2% Other), who reported stress levels (scale 1–10) and parenting behaviors three times daily for 14 days, plus a final assessment on Day 15 (N = 16,979 EMAs). Parenting behaviors were classified as (1) positive with punitive, (2) positive without punitive, and (3) punitive without positive behaviors. Participants reporting neither positive nor punitive parenting served as the reference group in all models. Multilevel logistic regression models examined non-linear associations between stress and parenting behaviors, accounting for within-person variability.

Results: Compared to periods when parents reported neither positive nor punitive behaviors, parents were more likely to report using both positive and punitive parenting at higher stress levels, with the highest adjusted odds ratio (aOR) of 4.25 at stress 7–8 (95% CI: 2.59-6.97), though this declined slightly at the highest stress levels (aOR = 2.73 at stress 9–10, 95% CI: 1.49–5.00). In contrast, positive parenting without punitive behaviors remained stable across stress levels except at stress level 6, where it increased (aOR=1.33, 95% CI: 1.06-1.66). However, punitive parenting without positive behaviors increased at moderate stress and peaked at the highest stress levels (aOR = 4.90 at stress 9–10, 95% CI: 2.42-9.95).

Conclusions and Implications: Findings suggest that stress does not simply suppress positive parenting but alters how it manifests. Moderate to high stress is associated with greater co-occurrence of positive and punitive behaviors, reflecting attempts to balance nurturance with discipline. At the highest stress levels, positive parenting without punitive behaviors significantly declines, while punitive parenting, both with and without positive behaviors, remains elevated or even peaks, indicating a potential shift toward reactive discipline strategies and diminished capacity for warmth under extreme stress. Research and practice should seek to find interventions to help parents regulate high stress, such as breathing exercises or spending time in green space. Funding should be directed to reduce factors impacting family stress unique to minority populations such as poverty and community violence that could impact parenting. These findings underscore the need for interventions that help parents maintain positive engagement while managing stress.