What Can Pregnancy Reveal about Future Parenting? the Role of Reflective Functioning from Prenatal Period to Toddlerhood

Parental reflective functioning (PRF) refers to a parent's capacity to understand and respond to their child's internal experiences and is foundational for sensitive caregiving and secure attachment. While postnatal PRF has been linked to parenting quality, far less is known about its development during pregnancy or its predictive value for future parenting beyond infancy, particularly in racially diverse, low-income communities. This study examined whether prenatal PRF was associated with maternal education, cumulative demographic risk, maternal-fetal attachment (MFA), and depressive symptoms. It also explored whether prenatal PRF predicted later parenting outcomes, including child abuse potential at 7 months, and observed parenting behavior during a structured mother-child teaching task at preschool age. By identifying early markers of parenting risk and resilience, this research aims to inform equitable, prevention-focused approaches in infant mental health policy and practice.

The sample consisted of 40 mothers (primarily Black, ages 19–40) recruited during their third trimester from a low-income, urban U.S. community. At baseline, mothers completed demographic questionnaires, the Pregnancy Interview-Revised (coded for reflective functioning), and self-report measures including the Maternal-Fetal Attachment Scale and the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. A cumulative demographic risk index was calculated using maternal age, education, income, and partner status.

When children reached 36 months, mother-child dyads participated in a lab visit that included two observational tasks: a 10-minute unstructured free play session and a 7-minute structured teaching task designed to be cognitively and emotionally challenging. Maternal behaviors in each context were coded for positive and negative parenting using validated observational rating systems. Hierarchical regression analyses examined whether prenatal PRF predicted parenting behaviors in each context, controlling for cumulative risk.

Prenatal PRF was positively associated with maternal education (p = .050) and negatively with cumulative demographic risk (p = .004), but not significantly associated with MFA or depressive symptoms. Controlling for cumulative risk, prenatal PRF significantly predicted positive parenting observed during the structured teaching task (β = .35, p = .031), but not during unstructured free play. Prenatal PRF did not predict negative parenting in either context. These results were consistent in the subsample of Black mothers. Findings suggest that RF during pregnancy may serve as an early marker of future parenting capacity.

This study is among the first to demonstrate that PRF measured during pregnancy predicts observed parenting behavior beyond infancy, particularly in challenging parent-child interactions. Findings suggest that prenatal PRF may serve as a protective factor in high-risk contexts and inform early identification of families who may benefit from preventive intervention. Importantly, results emerged from a racially and socioeconomically diverse community sample, addressing gaps in the literature, and underscoring the need for culturally responsive measurement and intervention in infant and early childhood mental health. By identifying a measurable, modifiable psychological capacity during pregnancy that predicts later parenting quality, this study advances the SSWR 2026 theme of aligning social work science with practice and policy to promote equitable, transformative changes in families and communities.