Adverse Childhood Experiences, Intimate Partner Violence Victimization, Perceived Masculinity, and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Among Male IPV Victims: A Path Analysis

Background: Research has demonstrated the harmful effects of ACEs and IPV on PTSD, with much focus on women (Diestel et al., 2023), with emerging evidence suggesting similar risks for men (Hines & Douglas, 2016), particularly those from racially minoritized backgrounds. ACEs are linked to a higher likelihood of IPV victimization and PTSD symptoms across populations, while IPV itself also elevates PTSD risk. Despite this, few studies have examined these factors together among men. Furthermore, perceived masculinity—shaped by traditional gender norms—may influence how men internalize trauma. Limited evidence suggests that men under pressure to conform to these norms may be less likely to seek help and more prone to severe mental health outcomes.

Guided by the life course theory (Elder, 1994), gender role strain (Pleck, 1981), and minority stress theory (Meyer, 2003), this study examines the direct and indirect effects of ACEs, IPV victimization, and perceived masculinity on PTSD among male survivors in general, and within racial and ethnic groups (i.e., non-Hispanic Black, Latino, and non-Hispanic White men).

Methods: Participants (N=1,194; non-Hispanic Black: n=299, Latino: n=596, and non-Hispanic White: n=299 men) were recruited via Centiment, a crowd-sourcing platform, to better understand their IPV experiences. Validated measures assessed IPV victimization, perceived masculinity, ACEs, and PTSD symptoms. Using SPSS Amos, structural equation modeling examined the relationships between these variables, the mediating effects of IPV on the ACEs – PTSD relationship, and perceived discrimination on the IPV-PTSD relationship across the full sample and by racial and ethnic group. Fifty percent (n=596) of men were Latino, had a mean age of 38.4 years (SD=10.70), and more controlling behavior exposure (M=14.03, SD=9.57).

Results: In the full sample, ACEs were directly associated with increased PTSD (ß =0.22, p<0.001) and IPV (ß =0.38, p<0.001). IPV was directly related to PTSD (ß =0.42, p<0.001) and perceived masculinity (ß =0.18, p<0.001), while perceived masculinity also predicted PTSD (ß =0.10, p<0.001). IPV significantly mediated the ACEs-PTSD (ß =0.16, p<0.001), and the IPV-PTSD relationship was partially explained by perceived masculinity (ß =0.02, p<0.001). Patterns were similar across racial and ethnic groups. For Black, Latino, and White men, ACEs predicted IPV (ß =0.36, p<0.001 vs. ß =0.37, p<0.001 vs. ß =0.42, p<0.001) and PTSD (ß =0.22, p<0.001 vs. ß =0.24, p<0.001 vs. ß =0.17, p<0.001), and IPV significantly predicted PTSD (ß =0.37, p<0.001 vs. ß =0.40, p<0.001 vs. ß =0.50, p<0.001). IPV was associated with perceived masculinity for Black (ß =0.16, p=0.009) and Latino (ß =0.20, p<0.001) men, but only Latino men showed a significant relationship between perceived masculinity and PTSD (ß =0.10, p<0.002).

Implications: Early adversity and IPV victimization profoundly impact PTSD outcomes among male survivors, with masculinity beliefs playing a key role in this relationship. Findings highlight the need for trauma-informed interventions that address childhood adversity and its lasting effects on IPV victimization and mental health. Practitioners should integrate masculinity-related concerns into therapeutic approaches to improve PTSD outcomes. Tailored strategies should also account for racial/ethnic differences, as the influence of perceived masculinity on PTSD was most pronounced among Latino men.