Adverse Childhood Experiences and Bullying Perpetration Among Children of Immigrant Caregivers in the United States

Background and Purpose: Although existing literature focuses on victimization in childhood bullying, there is a notable lack of research on the risk factors that contribute to bullying perpetration, especially among children from immigrant households. These children may face unique stressors, such as discrimination, language barriers, and limited access to support systems, which, when combined with adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), can influence negative behavioral outcomes. This study examined the relationship between cumulative ACE exposure and bullying perpetration among children of immigrant caregivers in the United States (U.S.) using nationally representative data.

Methods: Data were drawn from the 2022 National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH). The analytic sample comprised 4,727 children aged 6-17 years, whose primary caregiver were born outside the U.S. and who provided responses regarding bullying behavior. The outcome variable, bullying perpetration, was based on caregiver reports and measured on a 5-point ordinal scale from “never” to “almost every day.” ACEs were assessed using nine binary indicators: parental incarceration, separation/divorce, parental death, exposure to domestic violence, neighborhood violence, household mental illness, household substance use, financial hardship, and discrimination. Cumulative ACE exposure was categorized as 0, 1, or 2+ ACEs. Multivariate linear regression was employed to evaluate the association between ACEs and bullying frequency, adjusting for child sex, age, race/ethnicity, household language, family structure, caregiver employment and education, and poverty status. Data was analyzed using Stata 17 (p<.05).

Results: findings from the study revealed that ACEs were significantly correlated with increased bullying frequency. Compared to children with no ACEs, those with one ACE exhibited higher bullying scores (β = 0.089, p < .001), and those with two or more ACEs demonstrated significantly elevated bullying frequencies (β = 0.183, p < .001). Male children (β = 0.025, p = .022) and younger age (β = 0.014, p < .001) were also associated with higher bullying rates. Children from non-English-speaking households (β = -0.044, p < .001) and racially minoritized backgrounds (β = -0.031, p < .001) were less likely to be reported as bullies, potentially reflecting cultural differences in their perceptions or disclosure.

Conclusions and Implications: Children in immigrant households experiencing multiple ACEs are more prone to engaging in bullying behaviors. Additionally, an increase in childhood adversity increases the risk of bullying perpetration. These findings underscore the need for school-based and community-level interventions that transcend punitive measures and adopt trauma-informed, culturally sensitive strategies. In order to promote resilience among these children, there is a need to recognize bullying as a potential manifestation of underlying adversity, particularly among marginalized groups, and provide interventions that prioritize healing, relational repair, and systemic support in the U.S.