Violent Intersections: Exploring the Role of Systemic Hardship, Masculinity, and Shame in the Perpetration of Violence in Nairobi's Informal Settlements

Background and Purpose: Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a global health crisis, but the rates are particularly high in informal settlements–defined as areas lacking essential resources and durable housing. Up to 85% of women in informal settlements in Nairobi, Kenya, for example, experience IPV. Globally, one in seven people live in informal settlements, including 60% of Nairobi’s 3 million residents. Residents in these settlements face a number of structural inequalities that restrict their ability to thrive. With limited economic and educational opportunities, for example, young men often struggle to fulfill social expectations of being providers or breadwinners. Existing research primarily focuses on the impacts of IPV on women survivors. Less attention has been given to how unreachable gendered expectations and related internalized shame can contribute to poor mental health and perpetration of IPV. This qualitative study helps to fill this gap by exploring intersections between structural hardships, unattainable societal expectations of masculinity, internalized shame, and the perpetuation of IPV among young men and boys in informal settlements in Nairobi, Kenya.

Methods: In-depth interviews with 36 IPV survivors, 30 clinic staff, and 24 community health volunteers (CHVs) were collected as part of an ongoing study examining the facilitators and barriers to IPV and mental health interventions and screenings in two informal settlements (Mathare and Kibera) in Nairobi. Sixteen trained community-based researchers conducted the interviews, which were audio-recorded, transcribed, and translated into English. Two research team members reviewed the transcripts and developed a draft codebook, which five members used to code the data. A second phase of coding focused specifically on the thematic areas of systemic hardships and masculinity as factors associated with IPV.

Results: Results indicated the emergence of four core themes: (1) Masculinity-Linked Shame and Role Inadequacy: Details how failing to meet traditional masculine (e.g. breadwinner, provider) roles generates internalized shame and impacts family violence, (2) Paternal Financial Insecurity and Psychological Distress: illustrates how socio-cultural pressures, compounded by economic hardship, significantly strain men’s mental health, (3) Men’s Coping Strategies and Risk Behaviors: Highlights coping with shame through substance use and/or violence, (4) Intergenerational Effects: underscores how individual cycles of harm rooted in systemic hardships and gender norms affect parenting practices.

Conclusion and Implications: By exploring the intersection of systemic hardships, masculinity, and shame and the effect these factors have on the perpetuation of IPV in informal settlements, this study highlights key pathways to IPV and a critical need for multi-level support for men. Findings suggest that men are facing economic hardship and unattainable social expectations and have limited access to health and support systems. This has serious implications for the health and safety of all residents. Through cross-sector partnerships, we can enhance gender-responsive support systems and trainings, access to mental health services, and economic opportunities for young men and boys–lessening the impacts of IPV and helping to inform policies that promote healthy gender expectations. The findings offer valuable insights for social workers, identifying multi-level strategies to support young men and boys in informal settlements and reduce IPV in these communities.