Sex, Immigrant Background, and Victimization Patterns Among Middle School Students in the U.S

Background and Purpose

School bullying remains a severe public health issue, characterized by complex patterns and differential impacts across student subgroups. Prior research has identified sex and immigrant background as important contextual factors shaping bullying experiences. However, little is known about how these sociodemographic characteristics predict distinct victimization patterns when multiple forms—such as physical, verbal, and relational bullying—are considered simultaneously. This study applied latent class analysis (LCA) to identify distinct victimization profiles and used multinomial logistic regression to examine how sex and immigrant status predict class membership.

Methods

This study utilized data from the 2022 U.S. sample of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), a nationally representative dataset of 15-year-old U.S. secondary school students. The final sample included 4,552 students from 154 schools. A latent class analysis was conducted on six dichotomous indicators reflecting students’ experiences of school bullying: (i) deliberate exclusion, (ii) mockery, (iii) threats, (iv) property being taken or destroyed, (v) physical attacks, and (vi) rumor-spreading.

Data analysis was performed using Mplus version 8.3. The Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), and entropy were used to determine the best-fitting model, with lower AIC and BIC values indicating better fit. Once the best-fitting model was selected, most likely class membership was derived. Multinomial logistic regression was then conducted to examine how sex (1 = female, 2 = male) and immigrant status (1 = non-immigrant, 2 = first- and second-generation immigrant students) predicted victimization class membership.

Results

LCA identified three victimization classes: Class 1—Relational and Verbal Victimization (primarily exclusion, teasing, and rumor-spreading), Class 2—Low Victimization (reference group), and Class 3—High Victimization (frequent exposure to all forms of bullying). Compared to the low victimization group, non-immigrant students were significantly more likely to be classified into both the relational/verbal victimization class and the high victimization class. Specifically, non-immigrant youth had 1.69 times higher odds of being in the relational/verbal victimization class (p < .001) and 2.80 times higher odds (p < .001) of being in the high victimization class, compared to immigrant youth. Sex differences were observed only in the relational/verbal victimization class, where girls were significantly more likely than boys to be classified into this group (odds ratio = 1.32, p < .001). However, sex did not significantly predict membership in the high victimization class (p = .972).

Conclusions and Implications

Findings indicate that sex disparities were specific to relational/verbal bullying, consistent with findings from prior research. In contrast, non-immigrant students face elevated risks for both relational/verbal and high victimization. The lower rates of reported victimization among immigrant students may reflect a complex interplay of cultural norms, reporting behaviors, and school context. While these students may appear less vulnerable in PISA data, this does not necessarily indicate a lack of exposure to harm. Instead, it may reflect underreporting or culturally embedded perceptions of bullying. Anti-bullying programs should incorporate culturally responsive practices and emphasize relational aggression awareness, particularly for girls.