The Dual Pathways to Resilience: Longitudinal Impacts of Parenting, Peer Dynamics, and Social-Emotional Intelligence

Background and Purpose: Resilience is a key developmental outcome that enables youth to adapt positively despite adversity. While much is known about the consequences of trauma and stress, less is understood about the early predictors that foster or hinder resilience over time. This study aims to identify the childhood factors—including emotional intelligence (EQ), social intelligence (SQ), parenting behaviors, and peer relationships—that contribute to the development of resilience in late adolescence. Specifically, it explores how protective and risk factors in childhood predict resilience nearly 10 years later. Methods: Data were drawn from the Longitudinal Study of Children’s and Adolescents’ Family and Social Experiences (LSCAFSE), which followed a nationally representative cohort of fourth-grade students (N = 6,248) from 2014 to 2023. Participants were approximately 10 years old at baseline (Year 1), and 1,158 completed the final wave at age 19 (Year 9). Key predictors measured at baseline included emotional intelligence (EQ), social intelligence (SQ), peer relationship quality, negative parenting, and bullying perpetration. Resilience was measured in Year 9 using a validated self-report scale. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the long-term effects of these childhood variables on adolescent resilience. Results: Findings revealed that higher levels of EQ (β = .07, p < .05), SQ (β = .09, p < .01), and positive peer relationships (β = .07, p < .05) in childhood significantly predicted greater resilience at age 19. Among these protective factors, social intelligence (SQ) emerged as one of the strongest predictors of adolescent resilience. Children with high SQ—those who demonstrated perspective-taking, empathy, and adaptive social problem-solving skills—were more likely to navigate challenges and maintain psychological well-being in young adulthood. Conversely, negative parenting (β = -.10, p < .001) and bullying perpetration (β = -.06, p < .05) were associated with lower resilience in later adolescence. Among the risk factors, negative parenting emerged as one of the strongest predictors of diminished resilience. Children exposed to emotionally harsh, critical, or inconsistent parenting showed significantly lower adaptability and coping skills in young adulthood. This suggests that the quality of early caregiving plays a foundational role in shaping long-term developmental trajectories. Conclusions and Implications: The results underscore the importance of both protective and risk factors in shaping resilience across developmental stages. High social intelligence in childhood provided a powerful buffer against future stress by equipping youth with interpersonal skills essential for managing adversity and sustaining social support networks. Similarly, positive peer relationships provided social scaffolding that fostered belonging, social learning, and emotional support. In contrast, negative parenting behaviors disrupted emotional regulation and reduced coping capacity, undermining long-term resilience. The findings emphasize the need for early interventions that not only build emotional and social competencies but also target parenting practices. For social work practice, this includes implementing parent training programs, trauma-informed family interventions, and school-based efforts to strengthen peer support and emotional skill-building. Strengthening children’s relational competencies and caregiving environments may be key to promoting long-term resilience and well-being across diverse settings.