Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms Among Victimized Women on Probation and Parole

Background and Purpose:  The intersection of victimization and posttraumatic stress (PTS) symptoms are factors that facilitate and complicate women’s engagement in the criminal justice system.  The objective of this research was to identify the predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms among a sample of victimized women in the criminal justice system. The research question assessed the predictive relationship between posttraumatic stress symptoms, sociodemographic factors, criminal justice involvement, cumulative victimization, substance use, social support, homelessness, and material loss. 

Methods:  Using community-based sampling methods, 406 women under probation or parole supervision were recruited for participation. Eligibility criteria:  18 or older; on probation and parole in Jefferson County, Kentucky; reported that when they had sex they had sex with men only or with both women and men; and reported some experience of physical and/or sexual victimization in their lifetime.  Interviews were administered by trained female staff using audio computer-assisted interviewing on laptop computers.  

Outcome variables: posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) diagnosis; PTS symptom severity; and the number of life domains in which functioning was impacted by PTS symptoms.  The Posttraumatic Stress Diagnostic Scale was used to measure all outcomes. Predictor variables included: sociodemographic factors; criminal justice involvement; cumulative victimization; substance use; social support; homelessness; and material loss

Multiple regression analyses using backward regression was used to estimate three models.  Logistic regression was employed for the dichotomous outcome; ordinary least squares regression was used for the ordinal level outcomes.

Results:  The model predicting PTSD diagnosis accounted for 26% of the total variance and retained six variables; meeting the criteria for PTSD was positively associated with a woman’s report of being in jail or prison in the last 12 months, physical and sexual intimate partner violence (IPV) in the past 12 months, respectively, experiencing physical and/or sexual non-intimate partner violence (NIPV) sometime in her life, increasing levels of resource loss, and regular use of methamphetamine.  The model predicting PTSD symptom severity accounted for 22% of the variance and retained six variables, while the final model predicting the number of life domains impacted by PTS symptoms accounted for 18.6% of the variance and retained five variables.  Higher symptom severity and an increasing number of life domains affected by PTSD symptoms were associated, respectively, with increased frequency of childhood psychological victimization, physical IPV in the past 12 months, ever experiencing any physical and/or sexual NIPV, increased resource loss over the past 12 months, and regular use of sedatives.  Symptom severity was also associated with an increased frequency of childhood sexual victimization.  

Conclusions and Implications: Regular use of sedative and methamphetamine were significantly correlated with PTS symptoms in the final regression models.  There is evidence that sedatives, methamphetamine and amphetamines may be more strongly associated with trauma experiences and subsequent PTSD than other substances. These findings suggest corrections officials should continue to pursue substance abuse treatment resources.  The women in this sample experienced a significant amount of resource loss, and as that loss increased, so did indicators of posttraumatic stress symptoms. Obtaining and sustaining material resources may need heightened attention.