Predicting Illegal Income Generation Among Homeless Male and Female Young Adults: Understanding Strains and Responses to Strains

Background:

Prior research describes homeless youths’ illegal income generation as both a survival mechanism associated with homelessness strains and as a maladaptive coping response to such strains. Yet it remains unclear how strains and responses to strains interact to influence illegal work. The literature also identifies gender differences in the types of illegal economic activities males and females pursue. Thus, the purpose of this study was to use general strain theory to understand how male and female homeless young adults engage in illegal income generation. For each gender, it was hypothesized that a greater variety of illegal income sources would be reported by male and female homeless young adults who: 1) have experienced greater childhood abuse, 2) have experienced greater street victimization, 3) have longer homelessness histories, 4) are more transient, 5) report more deviant peer associations, 6) report greater substance use, 7) meet the criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and 8) have a greater number of lifetime arrests.

Methods:

This study used a cross-sectional design and purposive sampling to recruit 601 homeless young adults (ages 18-24) from agencies in Los Angeles (n=200), Austin (n=200), and Denver (n=201). Face-to-face interviews used a quantitative retrospective questionnaire that included standardized and researcher-developed measures to assess demographics, homelessness history, mental health and substance use (Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview), childhood abuse (Childhood Trauma Questionnaire), victimization (Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire), peer associations, and illegal income generation (e.g., income from stealing or dealing drugs). General strain theory was used to identify predictors of illegal activity, including strains (childhood abuse, street victimization, length of homelessness, transience) and responses to strains (deviant peer associations, substance use, PTSD, arrest history). The full hypothesized path models for males and females separately were tested using observed-variable path analysis.

Results:

The model for females represented an excellent fit (X²=28.00, df=21, p=.140, CFI=0.979, RMSEA=0.039). A greater variety of illegal income sources was reported by females who had experienced greater street victimization (β=.330, p<.001) and who had used a greater number of substances in the past 12 months (β=.429, p<.001). The model for males also represented an excellent fit (X²=29.16, df=20, p=0.085, CFI=0.983, RMSEA=0.035). A greater variety of illegal income sources was reported by males who had more deviant peer associations (β=.187, p<.001), experienced greater street victimization (β=.169, p<.001), and used a greater number of substances in the past 12 months (β=.376, p<.001).

Conclusions:

Several gender similarities and differences emerged. For females and males, greater strain, in the form of street victimization, was associated with maladaptive responses, in the form of substance use, and such patterns correlated with greater illegal activity. This suggests that homeless young adults who experience strain and use substances might struggle in obtaining and maintaining legal employment, turning instead to illegal activities to meet their needs. In contrast, for males only, a greater variety of illegal income sources was reported by those who had more deviant peer associations. This suggests that a deviant peer group might be a portal to illegal economic activities for males, yet not for females.