"We Have to Set an Example for Them": Expectant Fathers' Perceptions of the Impact of Interpersonal Violence on Their Child

Purpose: Interpersonal violence (IPV) is associated with numerous detrimental outcomes in children, including physiological and emotional dysregulation. Although research involving infants is very limited, greater infant physiological dysregulation and increased cortisol reactivity (Hibel, et. al., 2011) have been identified, as well as attachment disorders (Zeanah & Scheeringa, 1997). Additionally, maternal prenatal PTSD resulting from IPV also contributes to the effects of IPV on children (Yehuda, 2005).  However, no studies exist that examine expectant fathers’ understanding of the impact of IPV on their children. The purpose of this study was to examine expectant fathers’ experiences of IPV, as both perpetrators and victims, and their understanding of the effects of IPV exposure on their children. 

Methods: This study employed qualitative data from a larger investigation examining the effects of psychosocial risk and resilience factors on the bio-psycho-social functioning of parents expecting a new baby.  Qualitative interviews were conducted with 50 low-income, urban, expectant fathers in Detroit. The interviews were qualitatively coded using thematic analysis, drawing on principles of grounded theory. Through an iterative process of identifying and reviewing themes in the narratives, final codes were developed for data analysis. The first author and a research assistant subsequently reviewed each transcript and analyzed the data using NVIVOsoftware.

Results: A minority of fathers (20%) reported having slapped, punched, or pushed their female partner at some time during their relationship.  Almost half reported that their female partner had slapped, punched, or pushed them at some point.  Men perceived the consequences of their own violence differently than the consequences of their partners’ violence against them; they perceived that they would experience legal consequences of their own violence against their female partners, but that their female partners would experience interpersonal rather than legal consequences of violence perpetration against their male partner. Themes emerged regarding the ways in which interpersonal violence might affect their child, including “traumatizing” them, teaching them that “violence is how one solves problems”, and making them fear for their mother’s safety.  Regardless of whether or not fathers had perpetrated violence against their partner or experienced it from their partner, all fathers recognized the potential negative impact of violence exposure on their child.

Conclusion: These data contribute to our understanding of prenatal psychological processes related to interpersonal violence perpetration, victimization, and exposure, among at risk expectant fathers, with implications for improving intervention and support services. Findings highlight the ways in which expectant fathers consider the impact of their own behavior on their children.  Additionally, fathers interpreted their own violence against female partners as having more serious consequences than female partners’ violence perpetration against them.  Fathers’ capacity to consider the effects of violence exposure on their children suggests that the prenatal period may be an opportunity to develop and support mentalization among fathers, with a potential to decrease the risk of interpersonal violence. Future research might evaluate the effectiveness of mentalization-based interventions for at risk expectant fathers.