Racial and Ethnic Differences in the Associations of Neighborhood Disorganization and Maternal Spanking with Early Behavior Problems

Purpose  Racial and ethnic minority populations comprise approximately one third of the U.S. population. Race and ethnicity strongly inform cultural norms, which are also intricately related to family and neighborhood processes such as parenting practices and neighborhood collective efficacy. Largely missing from existing scholarship is the lack of studies that address racial and ethnic differences in the simultaneous associations of neighborhoods and parenting processes with early child development. To address this gap, this study explores whether there are discernible patterns in the relationships between neighborhood disorganization (i.e., lack of neighborhood collective efficacy) and maternal spanking on five-year-olds’ externalizing and internalizing behavior problems by race and ethnicity. 

Methods  Data for this study were obtained from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a birth cohort study in 20 large U.S. cities. The analytic sample consisted of 2,388 White, Black, or Latino mothers and their focal child in Wave 3 (age 3) and Wave 4 (age 5). Missing data for the sample was imputed using multiple imputations through chained equations. Lagged dependent multi-level models with random intercepts were employed to examine the relationships between collective efficacy and maternal spanking on externalizing and internalizing problems at age 5. This analytic approach accounted for preexisting behavioral issues of children and reflected the assumption that neighborhood conditions are likely to be correlated in the same neighborhoods. Interactions between the main effects and race/ethnicity tested the moderation effects of race/ethnicity. Covariates at the individual child, parent, and neighborhood levels were included in the models to control for the racial/ethnic differences in structural and socio-economic factors. 

Results  Descriptive statistics indicated that maternal spanking is most common in Black families and least prevalent in Latino families. Results of the multi-level analysis underscored the positive association between spanking with both externalizing (𝛽 = 0.108, p < .001) and internalizing behavior (𝛽 = 0.037, p < .001). The interactions between maternal spanking and race/ethnicity on behavior problems were not significant. That is, the effects of maternal spanking on behavior problems were indistinguishable by race/ethnicity even after collective efficacy and a wide array of covariates are controlled. Significant differences by race/ethnicity were found in the relationship between collective efficacy and internalizing behavior. Specifically, the protective role of collective efficacy on internalizing behavior were more pronounced in Latino children than White children (𝛽 = –0.039, p < .01). Race/ethnicity, however, did not moderate the associations between collective efficacy and externalizing behavior. 

Conclusions and Implications  The finding demonstrates that spanking is a significant risk to child development regardless of race and ethnicity. This speaks to the importance of promoting positive parenting practices to all families regardless of their ethnic and racial backgrounds. At the same time, the significant interaction between collective efficacy and Latino origin on internalizing behavior suggest that interventions that increase collective efficacy in neighborhoods may be especially valuable for reducing internalizing problems among Latino children. To provide effective and relevant services based on values and traditional norms of minority cultures, programs and services should place strong emphasis on cultural competency.