The Intergenerational Effects of Maternal Depression on Their Young Adult Children's Depression

Purpose: Depression affects females more than males. Maternal depression has been found to have adverse impacts on children's developmental outcomes. However, little research have been addressed on intergenerational effects on depression across three generations. The present study examined the effects of maternal depression in young adulthood and late adulthood on their children's depression. Specific questions include: 1) What are the individual and environmental determinants for maternal depression in young and late adulthood? 2) Does maternal depression in young and late adulthood affect their children's depression? 3) Does maternal depression in young adulthood influence depression in late adulthood?

Methods: The present study used the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 79 (NLSY 79) collected from 1979 to 2012 and the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 79 for Children and Young Adults collected from 1986 to 2012. The two sets of data were merged, and children were matched with their mother. Approximately, 4,000 pairs were selected for the study sample. The sample included 1937 White, 1319 Black, and 853 Hispanic children. Depression was measured by the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) scale, which was used for both mothers and their children. Baseline variables (age, education, marital status, the Armed Forces Qualification Test, urban/rural region, poverty status, employment) were included. Ordinary linear regression analyses were conducted to examine the research questions.

Results: Black mothers in young adulthood were less likely to be at risk of depression compared to Whites. However, there was no significant association between racial groups and depression in late adulthood. Mothers with low education was associated with greater risks of depression in young adulthood. Mothers who were married were less likely to be depressed in young adulthood. Marriage was associated with low levels of depression in late adulthood. Lower scores of AFQT were significantly associated with maternal depression in young adulthood. Poverty and unemployment were positively associated with maternal depression in young adulthood. Mothers in poverty and living in rural regions were at greater risk of depression in late adulthood. There were no racial disparities in children's depression. Female children were more likely to be depressed than male children. A mother's marriage was negatively associated with the child's depression. Mothers in poverty were positively associated with their children's depression. In terms of intergenerational depression, maternal depression in both young adulthood and late adulthood was positively associated with children's depression. Maternal depression in young adulthood was positively associated with depression in late adulthood.  

Implications: First, ethnic differences in maternal depression imply that it is necessary to provide more targeted programs for Blacks. Secondly, maternal depression in young adulthood influencing depression in late adulthood indicates that the early intervention is crucial to manage maternal depression. Third, raising a child with the help of a spouse and reduced financial burden is important to prevent children's depression. Lastly, early interventions for maternal depression are critical to prevent intergenerational effects on depression across three generations.