Spanish Validation of the Machismo and Chivalry Scale Among Nicaraguan, Salvadoran, and Mexican Youth

BACKGROUND & PURPOSE: Though Machismo refers to a cultural trait attributed to gender oppression and hyper-masculinity in any culture, there is a strong association between this concept and Latin American culture. Strikingly, the concept of machismo has been more extensively employed in the U.S. than in Spanish-speaking countries (Gonzalez & Gutmann, 2005). The definition of machismo is still controversial and the empirical studies on this important phenomenon are far from sufficient. The Machismo and Chivalry Scale (M&CS), aiming to measure two traditional dimensions of masculinity, was developed by Arciniega and his colleagues (2008). The M&CS has yet to be validated in Spanish within the context of Latin American countries, specifically in El Salvador, Mexico and Nicaragua. This study examined the psychometric properties and criterion-related of the M&CS among university students from these countries.  

METHODS: The twenty-item M&CS was translated into Spanish using a multistep method and pilot tested in the US and Nicaragua. Responses to the M&CS by males between the ages of 18 and 25 were retrieved from the cross-national study “Traditional Masculinities and Parental Discipline in Central America and Mexico.” All items were measured using a 7-point Likert-type scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree.” This study analyzed university male student samples from El Salvador (n=503), Mexico (n=899), and Nicaragua (n=834). Initial descriptive statistics and reliability analyses were conducted to examine the behavior of individual items. Less than 3% of data were missing across the samples. Using MPlus, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was then used to explore the psychometric properties of the M&CS. The best model for each group was found using the recommended procedure for categorical variables (WLSMV - robust weighted least squares estimator), independently for each group. A similar configural model for all groups of university students was found. Since both samples of university students have the same variables and correlation errors, invariance tests comparing the groups were conducted, and then analyzed together in a one group model.   

RESULTS: The original M&CS was reduced from its 20-item design (10 for traditional machismo and 10 for Chivalry) to a more culturally appropriate 6-item design for each dimension. The 12 items model was found to have acceptable fit for each sample and for the overall sample ([χ2(43) = 86.64 [0.034 - 0.065]; RMSEA = 0.050; CFI = 0.97; and TLI = 0.964). An examination of criterion-related validity indicated that the adapted M&CS correlated consistently with key variables, including different types of substance use.   

CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS: This study supported that a modified versions of the M&CS is valid and reliable for use within Spanish speaker university students from three different countries. The M&CS can be used to advance the examination of the complex phenomenon of patriarchal society in the Americas, specifically understanding the multiple dimensions of traditional masculinities. This validated and reliable measure can be useful to inform interventions seeking to increase the empowerment of women and encourage reflection about gender expectations in the Central American region and the Latino culture in the US.