Hijab and Depression: Examining the Relationship Among American Muslim Women

Background and Purpose: Depression is among the most prevalent mental health problems in the US, with women being disproportionally impacted. One practice that is theorized to engender depression among Muslim women is the Islamic practice of hijab or veiling. Some observers contend that hijab is an oppressive practice that engenders several detrimental health outcomes, including elevated levels of depression. Conversely, many Muslim women argue that veiling is an expression of their spirituality that, if anything, has a protective effect on females.

Despite the growing size of the female Muslim population in the US, little, if any, research has examined the controversial relationship between hijab and depression. This study addresses this gap in the literature by testing the hypothesis that wearing the hijab more frequently predicts higher levels of depressive symptoms among American Muslim women.

Methods: To obtain a national sample of Muslim women, a purposive, snowball sampling strategy was used to identify Islamic organizations in the US (N=22). The study design was cross-sectional. After pilot testing, surveys were administered online to members of the organizations who agreed to participate in the study. A post hoc power analysis indicated the resulting sample size (N=194) had sufficient power to detect a small to medium effect size (i.e., f²=.08) with eight predictors in the model using widely accepted values (α=.05; 1-β=.80). The mean age of the sample was approximately 38 years (SD=11.12), and a majority were: Sunni (84%), spoke primarily English at home (66%), held graduate degrees (57%), US-born (53%), married (51%), and a plurality self-identified as Middle Eastern (36%).

The independent variable--hajib frequency--was measured with a single item [never (0) to always (4)]. The dependent variable--depression--was measured with the short form of the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) [Cronbach's α=.86]. To test the study hypothesis, a two step, sequential regression was conducted. The first model featured potential confounders. In the next step, the hijab frequency variable was added to the model. Missing values ranged from 0 to 6 percent of cases across variables. To retain the full sample, multiple imputation was conducted. Five imputed datasets were created for use in the subsequent regression analyses.

Results: The first model was significant, with R² coefficients ranging from .288 to .303 across the five datasets. For the second model, the R² coefficients ranged from .301 to .318 (DR² ranged from .012 to .020 across the five datasets). The study hypothesis was not supported. After controlling for other predictors of depression, women who reported veiling more frequently reported lower, rather than higher, levels of depressive symptoms.

Implications: Given the present political climate, the results have important implications for practice. The social work literature has featured reports of practitioners actively encouraging Muslim women to stop practicing hijab. The results of the present study provide no support for such actions. Indeed, consistent with qualitative studies featuring the voice of women who practice hijab, the results suggest that hijab may have a protective effect against depression for those who chose to veil.