Gender Differences in Adverse Childhood Experiences, Bystander Intervention Outcomes, and Long-Lasting Consequences

Background:

Many children are exposed to a variety of harmful experiences. Such adverse childhood experiences (ACE) are associated with negative health consequences at the time of the incident as well as throughout the lifespan of survivors.  Adults who experienced ACEs have been linked to poor health conditions, risky health behaviors, and high likelihood of being victimized by intimate partner violence (IPV). Bystander behaviors at the time of the ACE incident may affect not only the ways survivors perceive and frame their experiences, but also how they respond to harmful experiences (e.g., IPV) in their future. The literature shows gender differences in the types of ACE victimization, and health consequences. However, the study results are often limited due to small samples and exclusion of a variety of different types of ACE. Furthermore, little is known if bystanders act differently by survivor's gender and the type of ACE. This study addresses this gap by using a relatively big dataset to examine gender differences in ACE, bystander interventions, and consequences.

Methods:

We collected survey data from undergraduate students in six universities in the U.S. in 2016 (N=3,878). Major variables were ACE, IPV victimization, bystander intervention, and demographic characteristics. ACE was measured by six types (e.g., community violence, child abuse, and exposure to domestic violence). IPV victimization was measured by five types, including threats, physical, sexual, technological, and psychological violence. Demographics included gender, depression, and perceived health status. Outcomes of the bystander intervention in ACE were measured by asking if it was helpful. Bivariate analyses, including Chi-square and t-tests, were conducted using SPSS v. 23.

Results:

Nearly 95% of students experienced at least one type of ACE. While females were exposed to domestic violence, and victimized by sexual violence in their childhood more than males, males experienced community violence more than females. ACE survivors reported more IPV victimization, a lower health status, and higher levels of depression than those without ACE, with all those differences being greater for females than males. Males remembered bystander interventions in ACE as having made situations worse more than females remembered.  This finding was consistent across all types of ACE. 

Conclusions:

This study found gender differences in the types of ACE experienced. However, it is possible that these differences may result from different perceptions of what constitutes ACE by gender, which asks for future research. Bystander interventions in ACE being less effective for males could be associated with lower IPV reports as well as lower help-seeking among males than females. The long-lasing negative effects of ACE on college students’ health suggest that campus service providers, such as health/mental health, counseling, and IPV services, need to consider the negative influences of ACE when serving students, and provide necessary information and referrals for those who reveal ACE to help them adequately address unsolved issues of past violence experiences. Campus services and policies need to be developed to reach out and support those who suffer from ACE, IPV, or other health problems, but do not seek help.