Community Violence Exposure, PTSD Symptoms, Optimism, and Functional Outcomes Among Young Adults Living in a Low-Resource Community

Background and Purpose: Community violence remains a pressing concern in American cities, and young adults living in low-resource areas are often highly exposed to violence (Truman, Langton, & Planty, 2013). However, we know little about the relationship between community violence exposure, mental health, and developmentally-relevant functional outcomes among young adults. Further, factors that protect young adults from the effects of community violence are critical to understand. The purpose of this study is to test the association between community violence exposure, PTSD symptoms, optimism, and educational attainment among young adults living in a low-resource community.

Methods: Data were collected as part of a larger, cross-sectional mixed method study. Participants are young adults (18 to 30) living in three public housing developments in a Northeastern city in the United States. Young adults were recruited using a combination of random sampling, fliers in the neighborhood, and snowball sampling; over half the sample was recruited using random sampling. Community violence exposure was measured by the Children’s Report of Violence Exposure (Cooley, Turner, & Biedel, 1995). PTSD symptoms were measured using the UCLA PTSD Reaction Index (Steinberg, Brymer, Decker, & Pynoos, 2004). Optimism was measured by the Life Orientation Test (Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994). Education was measured as total years of education. Data were analyzed using Structural Equation Modeling including confirmatory factor analysis of PTSD symptom clusters, applying both global and focused fit indices. The overall model tested the relationship between two types of community violence (witnessing and personal victimization), three PTSD symptom clusters, and education. Optimism was examined as a moderator of the relationship between community violence and PTSD. Covariates were included in the model.

Results: The sample consists of 121 young adults (Mean age = 24, 62% female, 47% Latino, 28% Black, 11% Multiracial, 14% Other). Participants reported experiencing frequent community violence exposure, and nearly 12% of the sample met criteria for PTSD. Confirmatory factor analysis indicated a three-factor model of PTSD (avoidance, anxious arousal, and a latent variable of all other PTSD symptoms). The overall model revealed satisfactory fit (x² = 38.462, p < 0.042; RMSEA = 0.067; CFI = 0.95; standardized root mean square residual = 0.03). Personal victimization was associated with higher levels of re-experiencing, numbing, and dysphoric arousal (p < 0.04). Witnessing violence was associated with higher levels of avoidance (p < .04). Optimism was not a moderator of the relationship between community violence exposure and PTSD symptoms, and PTSD symptoms were not associated with educational attainment.

Conclusions and Implications: Young adults living in low-resource areas are highly exposed to a variety of types of community violence, and different types of community violence exposure are likely associated with different PTSD symptoms. The results suggest that clinicians working with young adults exposed to community violence should tailor interventions depending on the type of violence experienced. For example, young adults who have witnessed violence may benefit from an intervention that helps them accurately assess for danger and reduce avoidance, such at Trauma-Focused CBT.